National Survey on Working Children

1. Introduction "The convention on the rights of a child surmises that any person below the age of 18 years has the right to education, the right to leisure and recreation, and the right to a standard of living that serves his/her best interest. The convention also categorically states that children have the right to be protected from economic exploitation, drug abuse, sexual exploitation and abuse, and prostitution." Child labour is a phenomenon that has long been in existence in the country. Records show that as early as the late nineteenth century, children have been hired in industries such as mining and garments manufacturing. In the early twentieth century, as the country transformed itself into an export-oriented economy, more children were sought for employment because they can be paid cheaper and can be given lesser benefits. Similarly, child domestic labour have existed since the feudal societies of the Spanish era. Children and their families were utilized to work in the farm under the tutelage of their landlords or hacienderos. Sometimes, children were even used as payments for debts of these poor peasants. Today, it is estimated that there are about 3.6 million working children whose age range between 5-17 years. It is reported that a vast majority of these children are being abused physically, emotionally, mentally,morally or sexually. Such abuses are becoming serious threats not only to the future of these children but also to the future of this country. Laws and policies banning child labour and providing sanctions against its violators have been in the country’s statute books since the 1920’s. However, none has been convicted upto this date. Recently, however, because of the growing problem of child labour probably due to the continued industrialization of the country and inspired by international statutes such as the ILO Convention 138, the government has intensified its campaign against child labour by enacting additional legislation, programmemes and other measures. In addition, non-governmental organizations have also focussed their attention to this particular problem. As part of this effort, the government, will review and evaluate Article 139 of the Labour Code that was enacted into law in 1970 which defines the work restrictions for young workers aged 15-17 years. The Implementing rules and regulations has been found to be much too broad, non-specific and outdated. Such rules and regulations may not be the practical instrument to achieve the objectives of Article 139. Thus the purpose of this project is to define and rationalize hazardous work or activities for which an age higher than that present minimum age should be specified. Back to Index 2. Brief Situationer of Child Labour in the Philippines As of July 1995, one-third of the population or about 22.3 million are children aged 5 to 17 years old. Eight out of ten children are from 5-14 years old. Around 3.7 million children have been found to be working at one time or another during the past 12 months. Males comprise two-thirds of these working children. Two-thirds of these working children live in the rural areas. More than half of the working children aged 5 to 14 years old have attained grade levels 1 to 5. Most of these working children are in farming; the wholesale and retail trade industry follows next having the second highest number of working children. Of the 3.7 million working children, more than 2 million have been exposed to hazardous environment. This is more in terms of the physical environment with temperature and humidity of the workplace reported as hazardous in 1.4 million cases. Moreover, more than half a million working children expressed a need for improved working conditions. One in every four working children cited lack of clean water supply, unsanitary surroundings, and flooding of work areas as the main workplace problems. In the rural areas, the lack of clean water supply was cited as the top condition needing attention while unsanitary work surroundings was the first to rank in the urban areas. The impact of the workplace hazards and poor working conditions could be reflected in terms of the occurrence of workplace related injuries and illnesses. One out of every 100 working children suffered from work related injuries and illnesses. As a result, approximately 3 out of every 100 ill or injured working child had to stop working permanently. About two-thirds of the injured or ill working children came from the rural areas. Aside from the complain of workplace hazards and poor workplace conditions, 6 out of 10 working children complained that they come home exhausted from work. In addition, more than 50 percent of the working children complained that their work is stressful. Ironically, 8 out of 10 working children do not have a day off or free time. From among those who did have, 54% reported as having only at most 10 hours of time for leisure for the entire week. Back to Index 3. Target Group The study population is focussed on data gathered from the young workers aged 15-17 years, although some data and discussions regarding the younger age groups are also included in order to have a more complete picture of the child labour situation in the Philippines and the different occupational hazards besetting these children. Back to Index 4. Objectives of the Study A. Specific Objectives 1. To review the implementing rules and regulations of Article 139 as to its practicability and applicability to the present set-up. 2. To recommend approaches by which the implementing rules and regulations could be revised and improved. B. Development Objective 1. To aim for the progressive elimination of child labour Back to Index Conceptual/Analytical Framework The framework presented here summarizes the different factors that may affect the health of our young workers. This framework will be the basis of the approach recommended later on. This frame work may also be applicable to adult workers except that there might be special problems applicable only to young workers such as the inability to do heavy work and the effects of certain job types or activities on the mental and physical development of the worker. The rationale as to why there is a need to protect children and young workers from hazardous work is also discussed later in the paper. View a Graphic Presentation of the Conceptual Framework or Back to Index 5. Study Design This is an evaluation of the implementing rules and regulations of Article 139. In the process, the said rules and regulations will be reviewed in terms of the hazards encountered in each job type or in the industry specified. Levels of health risks are further assessed with regards to such hazards. Back to Index 6. Data Collection Local and international journals, and published and unpublished studies regarding working conditions and health effects of work on children were reviewed and summarized. These studies provided definitions and clarifications on several topics, e.g. hazard, workload and the like. The survey on child labour conducted by the NSO in 1995 was likewise reviewed. Also, this study includes a review of the different guidelines, laws and proposed bills which were extremely helpful in formulating the recommendations. Key informants from government and non-government agencies including experts were interviewed. The government agencies included : DECS, DSWD, BWC-DOLE, BWYW, DOJ, the regional offices of the DOLE in Cebu and Bacolod, and the local government units of Cebu and Bacolod. The non-government agencies interviewed were the Visayan forum, TUCP, FFW, KDC, ICCB, and STOP. Personal interviews of child labourers were also made. Experts in the field of adolescent pediatrics, child psychiatry and sleep disorders were likewise consulted. These interviews provided materials which were very useful in the analysis portion as well as in the formulation of recommendations. Consultative meetings were not conducted since it would be difficult to bring concerned agencies together. Ocular visits and observations were carried out in Cebu - Mactan stone quarrying, broom-making, guitar-making, pyrotechnics, and rattan furniture manufacturing; Negros Occidental - sugarcane plantation, crab fishing, papaya plantation, tricycle driving and lime stone quarrying; Laguna - shoe-making, paper mache factory and woodcarving; the streets of Manila - streethawkers, fishing port area and domestic work. These ocular visits, together with personal interviews, provided the best insights into how these children regard their work - why they need to work and what their aspirations are. Back to Index 7. Results and Discussion 7.A. Children are Different from Adults Like the adult workers, young workers are faced with exposures to different types of hazards at work. But unlike adult workers, the young workers’ bodily responses to such hazards may be different due to size, physical, mental and social development and the potential for cumulative and/or delayed effects which could be manifested later on. A child’s body is a developing body. Pediatric bone is more porous and pliable than adult bone and therefore fails in both compression and tension. Due to the presence of growth plates which are relatively weaker than the surrounding ligaments and bone, acute joint injuries almost always involved these growth plates rather than the joint ligaments. And although children’s bones have a greater potential for remodeling after injuries due to the thick periosteum and the ongoing growth potential, this results into potential problems with overgrowth and angular deformities. Likewise, the spine which is also fast-developing, may be affected by heavy loads imposed on it during manual work, resulting to stunted growth. Besides heavy loads, chronic physical strain may cause early disc degeneration and loss of its water content. In turn, this will make the spinal column shorter and probably deformed. Since males generally do not develop early in the adolescent stage (10-13 years old) unlike females, giving heavy workload would make them even more compromised. General muscle coordination is another feature of the child which is not yet fully developed in adolescence but is important during hard work. Some types of work would require operating machines and equipment or coordinated tasks. For the adolescent to handle this would predispose him/her to accidents and injuries. Intensive muscle building relatively starts at 15 to 17 years of age. It is at this stage that food eaten by the adolescent is spent mostly in bodily growth such that very little remains for the performance of other work. Thus it is important that nourishment before and during that stage must be adequate, and exertion be regulated in order that the full potential of the body be achieved. Before puberty, a child’s body has relatively short limbs compared with the torso resulting in an increased body surface to body weight ratio. Such an occurrence leads to an enhanced ability to transfer heat via convection and radiation during exertion. However, a child’s sweating mechanism is yet underdeveloped which makes evaporative heat exchange more difficult. Thus, children are more sensitive to situations that may result to thermal injuries especially heat stress. Such situations may include working in conditions that limit their access to adequate ventilation and overload in terms of physical exertion. In addition, children also have lower cardiac output for any given level of exercise or exertion than adults which affects their aerobic capacity and make them tire easily. Exposure to substances specially toxic chemicals could further disadvantage a developing body. Adverse health effects may be felt immediately or this may be manifested when they become adults. Mental development which supposed to have been finished during early childhood may not be as complete specially in terms of the decision-making process. The decision-making process of adolescents are mostly based on the short-term and concrete effects of certain situations or circumstances rather than the future implications. Maturity in decision-making, professional conscience, feeling of responsibility, patience and meticulousness, usually but not generally, come with age. Moreover, psychologically and emotionally, the coping mechanisms of children to difficult situations or exploitative conditions such as those that may happen in workplaces, are inadequate and often times inappropriate. Therefore, with the anatomical and physiological disadvantages of children, it is imperative for us to protect them from any type of exploitation including child labour. Back to Index 7.B. What exactly do you mean by the term HAZARD? Hazard is defined as the capacity or the potential of an object, substance or condition to produce a particular type of adverse effect to a person or groups of persons. In the proposed supplementary guidelines of Article 162, Chapter II, Book IV of the Labour Code (PD no. 442) which classifies establishments into hazardous or non-hazardous, no definition of the word "hazard" is given. Instead, the guidelines only define the terms hazardous work processes and materials, which upon scrutiny, are quite vague and needs further clarification. Hazards are generally classified into four types : physical, chemical, biological and ergonomics. Physical hazards include noise, heat, light, radiation, vibration, dust and general housekeeping conditions. Chemical hazards are mist, fumes, smoke, liquid and solid materials, gas, vapour and dust particulates. Biological hazards are insects, bacteria, viruses, rodents, mite, parasites and other organisms. Ergonomics hazards are those pertaining to body positions in undertaking different tasks and using tools or equipment, monotony and boredom, repetitive movements, organizational or administrative issues, and psycho-social dimensions. In addition, safety concerns such as accidents, injuries, falls and slips may also be considered a separate classification of hazards. Such hazards maybe further categorized according to the elements of occupational health, namely the worker, the task, the work environment and the tool or equipment, for easier delineation of control measures or preventive programmemes as will be seen later in the recommendations. The 1995 survey of the National Statistics Office on Child Labour revealed that the most common industries where most of the injuries and illnesses occur are farming and fishing. The types of injuries and illnesses identified are cuts,wounds, puncture, body pains and skin diseases. Other industries have minimal injuries and illnesses compared to farming and fishing. This maybe explained by the fact that there are more child labourers in the rural areas rather than in the urban areas and that they are engaged in the mentioned industries. However, industries such as mining and quarrying which one expects to be in such a list, are not included. Thus, for the data to be truly comparable among industry sectors, the data need further analysis in terms of the proportion of injuries and illnesses within the industry sector prior to comparisons. With all the child labour data collected by the NSO, a variety of analytical techniques such as testing of significance in terms of the identified hazards and industry types and others may still be done for the data to be truly meaningful. In other countries, such as Austria, hazardous activities are described specifically instead of naming the occupation or industry. To a certain extent, this method is advantageous. It limits the activity that a young worker can do for a certain type of job but it does not altogether ban the young worker from taking on the occupation itself or from being employed in another task for that particular industry sector. However, this method may also be open to different interpretations which may lead to some confusion in the implementation. Minimum age for young workers with regards to dangerous work ranges from 14 years old in two countries to 21 years old. Majority, however, are within the 16 to 18 years old range. While in other countries, e.g. California, USA, regulations for young workers are based on the type of industry . In such a method, work in any aspect of a particular banned industry even if non-hazardous, would then be not available to the young worker. Back to Index In the Philippines, the implementing guidelines of Article 139 which is the Department Order No. 4, are occupation and industry-based. The guidelines are much too broad for some industries such as in farming and too specific for some occupations such as female bath house attendants and female escorts for men. As pointed out by a trde union representative, the DO4 is vague, outdated and needs to be changed. Although the implementing agency has not experienced any confusion and had used the DO4 as basis for raids and closure of establishments or the banning of certain occupations such as muro-ami fishing, they still opted to revise the DO4. This is due primarily to the emerging issues in child labour today such as changes in the types of occupations where children are employed. The most alarming aspect in the research is the fact that 90% of those interviewed do not even know that the DO4 guidelines exist and have not used them at all. Thus, there is a need for information dissemination. Also, it is only recently that labour inspectors have started including child labour in their reporting system. The regional DOLE representative interviewed added that the guidelines focus is more on the formal sector whereas most of child labour happen in the informal sector. There is no labour inspector assigned specifically to the informal sector where child labour mostly occur. Furthermore, due to the number of industries that have sprouted in the past years, it has been difficult for labour inspectors to investigate most of these establishments. In addition, local government units are not aware or concious of such a problem since child labour is regarded as normal in our culture. In order to come up with a more rational approach to the implementing guidelines, a listing of the hazards and probable health risks identified for each of the occupation/industry are given below. This review would provide insights as to the reasons for labeling certain occupations/industry as hazardous and thereby including them in the guidelines. View the provisions of DO4. The preceding list of occupations, industries, and activities is based on local and international studies, ocular visits, interviews and consultation meetings with both government and non-government agencies. Although all the occupations/industries listed have their specific hazards, some have activities related to the occupation or industry which may have very low health risk and therefore maybe taken on by a young worker. Thus, an approach that will include the listed occupations which are obviously hazardous and post high risks to health and at the same time also include a more liberal yet rational system, must be formulated. Back to Index 7.C. Workload: How much can children and young workers take? Workload is a very important determinant of the type and extent of exertion a worker experiences. Workload dictates the stress brought into the body. Workload is the amount of undertaking a body can withstand, whether it requires physical exertion or a mental task. Thus it is not only important to scrutinize the safety of the task but it must also be analysed in terms of the load or stress that the task imposes on the body because this may jeopardize a young worker’s health as well. According to the ILO Convention No. 128, when young workers are involved in the manual transport of loads, the maximum weight of such loads must be substantially less than that permitted for adults which is about 55 kg. However, the convention does not specifically define what substantially less means. Though it is not written, according to ILO Occupational Safety and Health Encyclopedia, the weight to be manually transported by a child must not exceed 40% of his/her own weight. In quarrying, children carry loads in their wheelbarrows exceeding 30 kg, and some even load stones weighing about 25 kgs per stone manually into trucks. In port areas, children carry cement bags weighing upto 50 kgs on their heads and/or shoulders. These loads may be less than 55 kgs, but are these loads safe enough for children to carry? In addition, other types of work which do not require carrying or lifting have their equivalent energy expenditure. Such equivalent energy expenditure maybe too heavy for the young worker that it might be detrimental to his/her health. Convention No. 138 tries to define the term "light work" applicable to children who are 13 to 15 years old, but only in terms of what should not be and not on what it is. Thus further definitions are needed. As mentioned in an earlier chapter, because of the frailties of the young workers and children’s bodies, several health effects could be seen acutely and in the long term. These health effects include stunted growth, malnutrition due to irregular eating habits, deformities in the bone structures, and susceptibility to accidents and injuries. The kind of task given to an individual determines the workload. Physiologically and technically, workload or work intensity must be based on oxygen consumption, energy expenditure and the heart rate. The pulse rate also reflects quite accurately the physiological state during muscular activity. In fact, in plant surveys, a study of heart rate reactions seem to be the most direct and simple method for evaluating stress at work. However, classifying work according the aforementioned techniques is not possible nor practicable in determining the lightness or heaviness of the workload. Thus, with the mentioned technical basis, an attempt is made to classify several common activities at work into light, moderate and heavy work based on the energy cost (kcal/min). Although the basis of the following are derived from adult data, this listing, nevertheless, could still serve as a guide. However, because of the differences between children and adults, further research must be done in this field. The list is presented in this table. Using such a listing, other similar activities could be classified as well. Other aspects of task, besides workload, are the frequency and timing of restbreaks, the number of working hours, training and supervision and shift work specially night work. It is equally important to analyse the preceding in trying to determine the type of work allowable for young workers. A concrete example is whether to allow a young worker to work at nighttime. In a rattan factory visited, young workers from age 13 years to 18 years old work at regular hours from 8 am to 5 pm depending on the output required. Although the task is relatively light, the young workers, towards the end of the week, would usually work till the early morning hours of the following day for two to three straight days due to a shipment they have to meet. According to experts, even though adolescents require much less sleep than children or even adults, a circadian rhythm must still be followed and a 7 to 8 hours of sleep are still recommended for individuals less than 20 years old. Aside from the time of work, the length of work is another important issue. Convention 138 states that the number of hours a child or young worker must work and stay in school, should not exceed 7 hours. This means that the number of hours of work must not be longer than 2 to 3 hours. This affirms that the child or young worker will have time for school and socialization. Such provisions would assure the normal development of the individual, not only physically, but also socially and psychologically. In reality, however, one can only hope that these provisions be followed. Thus, in trying to come up with guidelines for allowable work for young workers, both the description of the task and the workload must be considered. Psychological stress is another form of work load that must be considered. Factors such as verbal abuse, isolation, immoral acts and sexual harassment are only some of the psychological stresses a young worker, much less a child, not be exposed to. Some of these factors will be dealt with in the recommendations, although, a more thorough research study must be done to document the effects of such psychological stresses. Back to Index 7.D. Examples from the Field 7.D.1. Mactan Stone Quarrying 7.D.2. Rattan Furniture Manufacturing 7.D.3. Children Domestic Helpers Back to Index 8. Conclusions Children and young workers are more vulnerable to insults (to their well-being) than adults. Based on the ocular visits, KI interviews done and the literary review, the list of hazardous occupations for young workers revealed that some occupations deemed to be hazardous are not included. e.g. domestic helpers, crab fishing. Certain issues on hazardous conditions such as the workload given to a young woker which may equally affect his/her health are not well-defined in the guidelines. The implementation of the rules and regulations is problematic primarily due to inadequate resources and lack of awareness at all levels. Back to Index 9. Recommendations The following are the activities/occupations which are recommended to be totally banned for children and young workers to work in because of their hazardous nature. Listed also are the basis why such activities/occupations are considered harmful to young workers View the list The Hazard Rating Matrix (HRM) - In addition to the list presented above, it is also recommended that a Hazard Rating Matrix or HRM be adapted as part of the guidelines. This matrix will cover those job types not included in the list and at the same time give flexibility to the above mentioned guidelines. However, the adoption of this matrix will require intensive training of labour inspectors who are essential in undertaking this task. Moreover, this system of rating must be piloted first in order to assess its applicability and effectiveness in the occupational setting. The successful utilization of the recommended matrix is hinged on a trained and enlightened cadre of incorruptible workplace inspectors. Therefore, appropriate curricula content and modules specific for probable implementors at the national and local levels should be designed. In order to heighten the effectiveness of the would-be inspectors, the necessary regulatory agency i.e. DOLE with the assistance of ILO should device a system of incentives for inspectors to identify workplace violations and successfully install workplace reform in terms of speedy promotions or a certain percentage of the fines elicited from the violators to be awarded to them. View this figure that presents the recommended Hazard Rating Matrix. The HRM presents an alternative way of determining tasks, activities, or occupations that are hazardous and therefore banned for children and young workers. The matrix attempts to look at tasks on the basis of its safety and work intensity. The degree of hazard in a task is dependent on the combination of the degree of safety of the working condition and level of work intensity. All tasks that are done in unsafe conditions are not allowed for children and young workers whether it be light, moderate, or heavy. Tasks in moderately safe conditions that are moderate and heavy in work intensity are also not allowed. Neither are children or young workers allowed to work in safe conditions but with a task of heavy work intensity. On the other hand, tasks which are done in safe conditions with moderate work intensity and tasks which are considered moderately safe with light work intensity are allowed for children and young workers. However, this is with the condition that appropriate protective and preventive measures are implemented by the employer to decrease the level of health risks to the young worker. The hazard matrix will also ensure the continued and improved safety of the task in general. For example, the employer should promote the use of appropriate protective equipment such as the masks, ear protectors, gloves, and other related protective gears; working conditions should be improved ,e.g. a ventilation system for a dusty workplace; provision of appropriate levels of supervision for the tasks involved; provision of sufficient rest or break periods and the like. Totally and unconditionally allow children and young workers only in tasks which are safe and light in terms of workload. Strong points of this Approach (the combined use of the list and the Hazard Rating Matrix) are the following: a.) Workload, which is generally taken for granted, is considered. b.) The approach is comprehensive, specific enough, and flexible. c.) This approach also provides practical definitions of hazardous and unsafe working environment and materials. d.) The HRM is both complementary and supplementary to the revised list being proposed. Whatever is not in the listing may still be subject to regulations through the use of the HRM. The socio-economic repercussions of violations in the child labour code are great. Because certain industries and specific businessmen commit these violations to gain economic advantages, they must be made to pay even in part for the socio-economic dislocation, health care costs, and other costs that child labourers and their families incur in the process. Unwittingly, these children and their families allow themselves to be used in their quest to struggle and survive amidst their poverty and almost hopeless circumstances. The taxes or fines that violators will be made to pay can then be used to correct the asymmetry of information that exists as well as in financing programmes that would invest money in trade education to ensure that children may become skilled workers in the future. Massive information campaigns especially around the Philippine countryside and in the urban poor areas regarding the exploitative nature and deleterious consequences of utilizing child labour unwantonly can then be initiated and financed by this fund. However, the determination to what appropriate policy instruments should be set in motion in order to ensure that appropriate incentives are in place to immediately limit the practice of using child labourers and in the future eradicate the practice entirely, should be studied with care. The regulatory goal should be to do away with the extensive use of child labour in industry but at the same time allow the various industries, especially the smaller industries that depend on child labour, to develop and train a legal workforce and therefore transition into more viable industries without using child labour. Regulations that would solve the child labour problem but decimate the existing industrial base would be socially unacceptable and will not provide a viable alternative. In the crafting of meaningful policy, studies should be done to quantify the costs of the consequences of utilizing child labour and the benefits derived from the practice. The health care costs of rehabilitating injury cases and treating health problems due to hazard exposure should be calculated against the benefits derived by the industries that utilize these children. It may be that societal costs in terms of health care cost and future workforce manpower loss may be greater than the benefits that the industries derive. In that case, there is no moral reason for the practice to continue. If on the other hand, the benefits are great to the industry but the costs to others especially the children and their families are greater, then policies to ensure better distribution of benefits to more sectors of society should be crafted. As an offshoot of this analysis, Local Government Units may help to combat child labour by passing ordinances in support of RA 7610 and RA 7658. Alternative livelihoods must be provided by the LGU and the DSWD. LGU’s must set aside funds for this purpose. Labour Inspectorate must cover the informal sector including child labour. This could be done by assigning at least one labour inspector per region or district exclusively focusing on the informal sector. The creation of the Barangay Council for the Protection of Children(BCPC) as a tool to combat child labour must be required in all municipalities by the DILG and DSWD. The BCPC will serve as a watchdog for violators at the barangay level. An incentive scheme may be formulated. The DILG may provide additional funds to municipalities which already have structures (e.g. BCPC formed, community participation, presence of a partner NGO or people’s organization) that support a child labour programmeme. A campaign which will label barangays as child-labour free can be established. Such child labour-free barangays maybe given incentives by the BWYW, the DSWD or the DILG. At present, the number of municipalities which has formed the BCPC is not known. It seems that there is no monitoring system for this purpose or if there is, may not be functional. Non-Government Organizations and people’s organizations must be tapped as necessary partners for programmeme support and monitoring. Community participation is essential in formulating effective child-labour elimination programmemes. The most important factor in the successful implementation of a new policy will be to influence the values and behavior of first, the people from whence comes the supply of child labour and secondly, the people who are the customers of the errant industries. The extensive propagation of the practice stems largely from the asymmetry of information that exists. Generally, the general public is not made aware of the health risks and hazards that the child labourers face. It may be possible that even some of the industrial perpetuators are not conversant with the details of the health problems they cause. Much less informed are the poor families who willingly allow their children to be recruited into these industries about the future effects of the practice on their children. Policy fora that will disseminate data driven information to better inform all stakeholders concerned should be systematically organized. These venues may also be used to gather recommendations and insights from stakeholders in order to determine which policies will redound to the greatest common good. In this way, not only better information but the base for better collabourative implementation of future policies may be forged. The law must have more provisions in terms of punishment for employers caught hiring child labour. Administrative sanctions such as the charging of stiff penalties on the spot can be executed. In addition, certain procedures in the judicial system must be revised to be child-friendly. Involvement of DECS and DOH in child labour problems - PD 603 implementation and Child Health Care programmemes. At present, although the constitution does not require that compulsory education must be done in the classroom, PD 603 mandates all parents to enroll their children in school in order to complete at least an elementary education. However, the DECS does not have a way of monitoring whether this decree is indeed being observed or implemented. In this aspect, again the BCPC could help out in the monitoring of school-aged children whether they are in school or not. Research - in order to intensify further the basis of the foregoing recommended system, additional research must be done in terms of thefollowing topics : work physiology among children and young workers, further analysis of the NSO data and policy-oriented studies In summary, programmemes on child labour must be three-pronged. They shall include local government involvement, inter-agency cooperation at both the national and local levels and community participation including NGOs. Furthermore, alternative livelihood that are sustainable for the families of child labourers must always be an integral part of a child labour programmeme. Back to Index